Keywords: Carnosinase, Derivatisation, Dipeptide, 4 Toluensulfonylureidocarnosine, Carnosine Derivative, Peptide Derivative, Unclassified Drug, Antioxidant Activity, Chelation, Drug Synthesis, Metabolic Disorder, Metal Ion Dyshomeostasis, Metal Metabolism, Muscle, Nervous Tissue, Nonhuman, Oxidative Stress, Priority Journal, Protein Function, Protein Localization, Review, Structure Activity Relation, Animals, Lipoproteins,
Affiliations: *** IBB - CNR ***
Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125, Catania, Italy.
References: Agarwal, R.P., Perrin, D.D., Stability constants of complexes of copper(II) ions with some histidine peptides (1975) J Chem Soc, Dalton Trans, pp. 268-27
Aldini, G., Facino, R.M., Beretta, G., Carini, M., Carnosine and related dipeptides as quenchers of reactive carbonyl species: From structural studies to therapeutic perspectives (2005) BioFactors, 24 (1-4), pp. 77-87. , HNE and Further Lipid Peroxidation Products
Aldini, G., Dalle-Donne, I., Facino, R.M., Milzani, A., Carini, M., Intervention strategies to inhibit protein carbonylation by lipoxidation-derived reactive carbonyls (2007) Medicinal Research Reviews, 27 (6), pp. 817-868. , DOI 10.1002/med.20073
Almkvist, J., Karlsson, A., Galectins as inflammatory mediators (2002) Glycoconjugate Journal, 19 (7-9), pp. 575-581. , DOI 10.1023/B:GLYC.0000014088.21242.e0
Artioli, G.G., Gualano, B., Smith, A., Stout, J., Lancha Jr., A.H., Role of beta-alanine supplementation on muscle carnosine and exercise performance (2010) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 42, pp. 1162-1173. , 20479615 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmtFKlu78%3D
Asperger, A., Renner, C., Menzel, M., Gebhardt, R., Meixensberger, J., Gaunitz, F., Identification of factors involved in the anti-tumor activity of carnosine on glioblastomas using a proteomics approach (2011) Cancer Investig, 29, pp. 272-281. , 10.3109/07357907.2010.550666 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXksVeiurc%3D
Babizhayev, M.A., Yegorov, Y.E., Advanced drug delivery of N-acetylcarnosine (N-acetyl-beta-alanyl-l- histidine), carcinine (beta-alanylhistamine) and l-carnosine (beta-alanyl-l-histidine) in targeting peptide compounds as pharmacological chaperones for use in tissue engineering, human disease management and therapy: From in vitro to the clinic (2010) Recent Pat Drug Deliv Formul, 4, pp. 198-230. , 20863274 10.2174/187221110793237547 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVSrsr3E
Babizhayev, M.A., Nikolayev, G.M., Nikolayeva, J.G., Yegorov, Y.E., A survey and analysis of the role of molecular chaperone proteins and imidazole-containing dipeptide-based compounds as molecular escorts into the skin during stress, injury, water structuring and other types of cutaneous pathophysiology (2011) Inter J Cosmet Sci, 33, pp. 1-16. , 10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00601.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXisV2ns7w%3D
Bai, F.P., Subramaniam, P., Mosberg, H.I., Amidon, G.L., Structural requirement for the intestinal mucosal-cell peptide transporter: The need for N-terminal alpha-amino group (1991) Pharm Res, 8, pp. 593-599. , 1866373 10.1023/A:1015848522228 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXlsV2ksb4%3D
Baran, E.J., Metal complexes of carnosine (2000) Biochemistry (Mosc), 65, pp. 789-797. , 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvFOlsbs%3D
Barnham, K.J., Bush, A.I., Metals in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (2008) Curr Opin Chem Biol, 12, pp. 222-228. , 18342639 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.02.019 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXlslKlsbY%3D
Bellia, F., Amorini, A.M., La Mendola, D., Vecchio, G., Tavazzi, B., Giardina, B., Di Pietro, V., Rizzarelli, E., New glycosidic derivatives of histidine-containing dipeptides with antioxidant properties and resistant to carnosinase activity (2008) European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 43 (2), pp. 373-380. , DOI 10.1016/j.ejmech.2007.03.038, PII S0223523407001936
Bellia, F., Vecchio, G., Cuzzocrea, S., Calabrese, V., Rizzarelli, E., Neuroprotective features of carnosine in oxidative driven diseases (2011) Mol Aspect Med, , doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2011.10.009
Bertinaria, M., Rolando, B., Giorgis, M., Montanaro, G., Guglielmo, S., Buonsanti, M.F., Carabelli, V., Gasco, A., Synthesis, physicochemical characterization, and biological activities of new carnosine derivatives stable in human serum as potential neuroprotective agents (2011) J Med Chem, 54, pp. 611-621. , 21182325 10.1021/jm101394n 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhs1SrsLrL
Boldyrev, A.A., Does carnosine possess direct antioxidant activity (1993) International Journal of Biochemistry, 25 (8), pp. 1101-1107
Bonomo, R.P., Bruno, V., Conte, E., De Guidi, G., La Mendola, D., MacCarrone, G., Nicoletti, F., Vecchio, G., Potentiometric, spectroscopic and antioxidant activity studies of SOD mimics containing carnosine (2003) Dalton Trans, , 4406-4415
Brookes, G., Pettit, L.D., Thermodynamics of formation of complexes of copper(II) and nickel(II) ions with glycylhistidine, β-alanylhistidine, and histidylglycine (1975) J Chem Soc Dalton Trans, pp. 2112-2117
Brown, C.E., Antholine, W.E., Chelation chemistry of carnosine. Evidence that mixed complexes may occur in vivo (1979) J Phys Chem, 83, pp. 3314-3319. , 10.1021/j100489a002 1:CAS:528:DyaL3cXlvFWqtw%3D%3D
Cacciatore, I., Cocco, A., Costa, M., Fontana, M., Lucente, G., Pecci, L., Pinnen, F., Biochemical properties of new synthetic carnosine analogues containing the residue of 2,3-diaminopropionic acid: The effect of N-acetylation (2005) Amino Acids, 28 (1), pp. 77-83. , DOI 10.1007/s00726-004-0142-0
Calabrese, V., Mancuso, C., Calvani, M., Rizzarelli, E., Butterfield, D.A., Giuffrida Stella, A.M., Nitric oxide in the central nervous system: Neuroprotection versus neurotoxicity (2007) Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8 (10), pp. 766-775. , DOI 10.1038/nrn2214, PII NRN2214
Calabrese, V., Cornelius, C., Stella, A.M., Calabrese, E.J., Cellular stress responses, mitostress and carnitine insufficiencies as critical determinants in aging and neurodegenerative disorders: Role of hormesis and vitagenes (2010) Neurochem Res, 35, pp. 1880-1915. , 21080068 10.1007/s11064-010-0307-z 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVWqtbfM
Corona, C., Frazzini, V., Silvestri, E., Lattanzio, R., La Sorda, R., Piantelli, M., Canzoniero, L.M., Sensi, S.L., Effects of dietary supplementation of carnosine on mitochondrial dysfunction, amyloid pathology, and cognitive deficits in 3xTg-AD mice (2011) PLoS One, 6. , doi: 10.1038/onc.2011.322
Cuzzocrea, S., Genovese, T., Failla, M., Vecchio, G., Fruciano, M., Mazzon, E., Di Paola, R., Vancheri, C., Protective effect of orally administered carnosine on bleomycin-induced lung injury (2007) American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, 292 (5), pp. L1095-L1104. , http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/reprint/292/5/L1095, DOI 10.1152/ajplung.00283.2006
D'Agata, R., Grasso, G., Iacono, G., Spoto, G., Vecchio, G., Lectin recognition of a new SOD mimic bioconjugate studied with surface plasmon resonance imaging (2006) Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, 4 (4), pp. 610-612. , DOI 10.1039/b517074e
Daniele, P.G., Amico, P., Ostacoli, G., Heterobinuclear Cu(II)l-carnosine complexes with Cd(II) or Zn(II) in aqueous solution (1982) Inorg Chim Acta, 66, pp. 65-70. , 10.1016/S0020-1693(00)85791-6 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XhtlSlu7g%3D
Daniele, P.G., Prenesti, E., Zelano, V., Ostacoli, G., Chemical relevance of the copper(II) l-carnosine system in aqueous solution - A thermodynamic and spectrophotometric study (1993) Spectrochim Acta, Part A, 49, pp. 1299-1306. , 10.1016/0584-8539(93)80037-B
Decker, E.A., Livisay, S.A., Zhou, S., A re-evaluation of the antioxidant activity of purified carnosine (2000) Biochemistry (Mosc), 65, pp. 766-770. , 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvFOlsb8%3D
Derave, W., Everaert, I., Beeckman, S., Baguet, A., Muscle carnosine metabolism and beta-alanine supplementation in relation to exercise and training (2010) Sports Med, 40, pp. 247-263. , 20199122 10.2165/11530310-000000000-00000
Di Paola, R., Impellizzeri, D., Salinaro, A.T., Mazzon, E., Bellia, F., Cavallaro, M., Cornelius, C., Cuzzocrea, S., Administration of carnosine in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury (2011) Biochem Pharmacol, , doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.07.074
Dobrota, D., Fedorova, T., Stvolinsky, S., Babusikova, E., Likavcanova, K., Drgova, A., Strapkova, A., Boldyrev, A., Carnosine protects the brain of rats and mongolian gerbils against ischemic injury: After-stroke-effect (2005) Neurochemical Research, 30 (10), pp. 1283-1288. , DOI 10.1007/s11064-005-8799-7
Drozak, J., Veiga-Da-Cunha, M., Vertommen, D., Stroobant, V., Van Schaftingen, E., Molecular identification of carnosine synthase as ATP-grasp domain-containing protein 1 (ATPGD1) (2010) J Biol Chem, 285, pp. 9346-9356. , 20097752 10.1074/jbc.M109.095505 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXjsFehsLw%3D
Elgavish, S., Shaanan, B., Lectin-carbohydrate interactions: Different folds, common recognition principles (1997) Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 22 (12), pp. 462-467. , DOI 10.1016/S0968-0004(97)01146-8, PII S0968000497011468
Ferrari, C.K.B., Functional foods, herbs and nutraceuticals: Towards biochemical mechanisms of healthy aging (2004) Biogerontology, 5 (5), pp. 275-289. , DOI 10.1007/s10522-004-2566-z
Fouad, A.A., El-Rehany, M.A.-A., Maghraby, H.K., The hepatoprotective effect of carnosine against ischemia/reperfusion liver injury in rats (2007) European Journal of Pharmacology, 572 (1), pp. 61-68. , DOI 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.06.010, PII S0014299907006796
Fu, Q., Dai, H., Hu, W., Fan, Y., Shen, Y., Zhang, W., Chen, Z., Carnosine protects against Abeta42-induced neurotoxicity in differentiated rat PC12 cells (2008) Cell Mol Neurobiol, 28, pp. 307-316. , 18027086 10.1007/s10571-007-9235-0 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhvFCntbw%3D
Gallant, S., Kukley, M., Stvolinsky, S., Bulygina, E., Boldyrev, A., Effect of carnosine on rats under experimental brain ischemia (2000) Tohoku J Exp Med, 191, pp. 85-99. , 10946918 10.1620/tjem.191.85 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvFWgtbc%3D
Grasso, G.I., Arena, G., Bellia, F., MacCarrone, G., Parrinello, M., Pietropaolo, A., Vecchio, G., Rizzarelli, E., Intramolecular weak interactions in the thermodynamic stereoselectivity of copper(II) complexes with carnosine-trehalose conjugates (2011) Chemistry, 17, pp. 9448-9455. , 21732434 10.1002/chem.201100313 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXosFens7w%3D
Grasso, G.I., Bellia, F., Arena, G., Vecchio, G., Rizzarelli, E., Noncovalent interaction-driven stereoselectivity of copper(II) complexes with cyclodextrin derivatives of l- and d-carnosine (2011) Inorg Chem, 50, pp. 4917-4924. , 21513326 10.1021/ic200132a 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXltFGmsLk%3D
Guiotto, A., Calderan, A., Ruzza, P., Borin, G., Carnosine and carnosine-related antioxidants: A review (2005) Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12 (20), pp. 2293-2315. , DOI 10.2174/0929867054864796
Guney, Y., Ozel Turkcu, U., Hicsonmez, A., Nalca Andrieu, M., Guney, H.Z., Bilgihan, A., Kurtman, C., Carnosine may reduce lung injury caused by radiation therapy (2006) Medical Hypotheses, 66 (5), pp. 957-959. , DOI 10.1016/j.mehy.2005.11.023, PII S0306987705006213
Hashida, M., Hirabayashi, H., Nishikawa, M., Takakura, Y., Targeted delivery of drugs and proteins to the liver via receptor-mediated endocytosis (1997) Journal of Controlled Release, 46 (1-2), pp. 129-137. , DOI 10.1016/S0168-3659(96)01577-5, PII S0168365996015775
Hashida, M., Akamatsu, K., Nishikawa, M., Yamashita, F., Takakura, Y., Design of polymeric prodrugs of prostaglandin E1 having galactose residue for hepatocyte targeting (1999) Journal of Controlled Release, 62 (1-2), pp. 253-262. , DOI 10.1016/S0168-3659(99)00045-0, PII S0168365999000450
Hipkiss, A.R., Carnosine, a protective, anti-ageing peptide? (1998) International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 30 (8), pp. 863-868. , DOI 10.1016/S1357-2725(98)00060-0, PII S1357272598000600
Jackson, M.C., Kucera, C.M., Lenney, J.F., Purification and properties of human serum carnosinase (1991) Clin Chim Acta, 196, pp. 193-205. , 1903095 10.1016/0009-8981(91)90073-L 1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXhsF2murc%3D
Jomova, K., Valko, M., Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease (2011) Toxicology, 283, pp. 65-87. , 21414382 10.1016/j.tox.2011.03.001 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXltFemsrs%3D
Kang, J.H., Kim, K.S., Choi, S.Y., Kwon, H.Y., Won, M.H., Kang, T.-C., Carnosine and related dipeptides protect human ceruloplasmin against peroxyl radical-mediated modification (2002) Molecules and Cells, 13 (3), pp. 498-502
Katayama, S., Nishizawa, K., Hirano, M., Yamamura, S., Momose, Y., Effect of polaprezinc on healing of acetic acid-induced stomatitis in hamsters (2000) J Pharm Pharm Sci, 3, pp. 114-117. , 10954680 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXksVOqtr4%3D
Kohen, R., Yamamoto, Y., Cundy, K.C., Ames, B.N., Antioxidant activity of carnosine, homocarnosine, and anserine present in muscle and brain (1988) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 85, pp. 3175-3179. , 3362866 10.1073/pnas.85.9.3175 1:CAS:528:DyaL1cXitF2ns7w%3D
La Mendola, D., Rizzarelli, E., Vecchio, G., (2002) Carnosine Derivatives, A Process for the Preparation Thereof and Pharmaceutical Compositions Containing Them, , University of Catania EP1176154
La Mendola, D., Sortino, S., Vecchio, G., Rizzarelli, E., Synthesis of new carnosine derivatives of β-cyclodextrin and their hydroxyl radical scavenger ability (2002) Helvetica Chimica Acta, 85 (6), pp. 1633-1643. , DOI 10.1002/1522-2675(200206)85:6<1633::AID-HLCA1633>
3.0.CO
Lanza, V., Bellia, F., D'Agata, R., Grasso, G., Rizzarelli, E., Vecchio, G., New glycoside derivatives of carnosine and analogs resistant to carnosinase hydrolysis: Synthesis and characterization of their copper(II) complexes (2011) J Inorg Biochem, 105, pp. 181-188. , 21194616 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2010.10.014 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtleiuw%3D%3D
Lenney, J.F., Peppers, S.C., Kucera-Orallo, C.M., George, R.P., Characterization of human tissue carnosinase (1985) Biochemical Journal, 228 (3), pp. 653-660
Matsukura, T., Tanaka, H., Applicability of zinc complex of l-carnosine for medical use (2000) Biochemistry (Mosc), 65, pp. 817-823. , 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvFOlsbY%3D
Mineo, P., Vitalini, D., La Mendola, D., Rizzarelli, E., Scamporrino, E., Vecchio, G., Electrospray mass spectrometric studies of L-carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) complexes with copper(II) or zinc ions in aqueous solution (2002) Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 16 (7), pp. 722-729. , DOI 10.1002/rcm.633
Negrisoli, G., Canevotti, R., Previstali, M., (2009) Dipeptide Compounds Containing D-histidine, , US2009306165
Nicoletti, V.G., Santoro, A.M., Grasso, G., Vagliasindi, L.I., Giuffrida, M.L., Cuppari, C., Purrello, V.S., Rizzarelli, E., Carnosine interaction with nitric oxide and astroglial cell protection (2007) Journal of Neuroscience Research, 85 (10), pp. 2239-2245. , DOI 10.1002/jnr.21365
Nielsen, C.U., Supuran, C.T., Scozzafava, A., Frokjaer, S., Steffansen, B., Brodin, B., Transport characteristics of l-carnosine and the anticancer derivative 4-toluenesulfonylureido-carnosine in a human epithelial cell line (2002) Pharm Res, 19, pp. 1337-1344. , 12403071 10.1023/A:1020306926419 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XntlSjsLk%3D
Nishikawa, M., Hirabayashi, H., Takakura, Y., Hashida, M., Design for cell-specific targeting of proteins utilizing sugar-recognition mechanism: Effect of molecular weight of proteins on targeting efficiency (1995) Pharm Res, 12, pp. 209-214. , 7784335 10.1023/A:1016222808484 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXjvFCmsrc%3D
Orioli, M., Vistoli, G., Regazzoni, L., Pedretti, A., Lapolla, A., Rossoni, G., Canevotti, R., Aldini, G., Design, synthesis, ADME properties, and pharmacological activities of beta-alanyl-d-histidine (d-carnosine) prodrugs with improved bioavailability (2011) ChemMedChem, 6, pp. 1269-1282. , 21634010 10.1002/cmdc.201100042 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXotVCnsb4%3D
Otani, H., Okumura, N., Hashida-Okumura, A., Nagai, K., Identification and characterization of a mouse dipeptidase that hydrolyzes l-carnosine (2005) J Biochem (Tokyo), 137, pp. 167-175. , 10.1093/jb/mvi016 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjs1eqs7c%3D
Preston, J.E., Hipkiss, A.R., Himsworth, D.T.J., Romero, I.A., Abbott, J.N., Toxic effects of β-amyloid(25-35) on immortalised rat brain endothelial cell: Protection by carnosine, homocarnosine and β-alanine (1998) Neuroscience Letters, 242 (2), pp. 105-108. , DOI 10.1016/S0304-3940(98)00058-5, PII S0304394098000585
Saada, M.C., Montero, J.L., Vullo, D., Scozzafava, A., Winum, J.Y., Supuran, C.T., Carbonic anhydrase activators: Gold nanoparticles coated with derivatized histamine, histidine, and carnosine show enhanced activatory effects on several mammalian isoforms (2011) J Med Chem, 54, pp. 1170-1177. , 21291238 10.1021/jm101284a 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhsVOntL4%3D
Sale, C., Saunders, B., Harris, R.C., Effect of beta-alanine supplementation on muscle carnosine concentrations and exercise performance (2010) Amino Acids, 39, pp. 321-333. , 20091069 10.1007/s00726-009-0443-4 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXotVaisL4%3D
Shytle, R.D., Ehrhart, J., Tan, J., Vila, J., Cole, M., Sanberg, C.D., Sanberg, P.R., Bickford, P.C., Oxidative stress of neural, hematopoietic, and stem cells: Protection by natural compounds (2007) Rejuvenation Research, 10 (2), pp. 173-178. , DOI 10.1089/rej.2006.0515
Sigel, H., Martin, R.P., Coordination properties of the amide bond. Stability and structure of metal ion complexes of peptides and related ligands (1982) Chem Rev, 82, pp. 385-426. , 10.1021/cr00050a003 1:CAS:528:DyaL38XlvVars78%3D
Sozio, P., Iannitelli, A., Cerasa, L.S., Cacciatore, I., Cornacchia, C., Giorgioni, G., Ricciutelli, M., Di Stefano, A., New l-dopa codrugs as potential antiparkinson agents (2008) Arch Pharm (Weinheim), 341, pp. 412-417. , 10.1002/ardp.200700228 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXovFaksbg%3D
Stvolinsky, S., Antipin, M., Meguro, K., Sato, T., Abe, H., Boldyrev, A., Effect of carnosine and its trolox-modified derivatives on life span of drosophila melanogaster (2010) Rejuvenation Res, 13, pp. 453-457. , 20681748 10.1089/rej.2009.1010 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVKitLzF
Stvolinsky, S.L., Bulygina, E.R., Fedorova, T.N., Meguro, K., Sato, T., Tyulina, O.V., Abe, H., Boldyrev, A.A., Biological activity of novel synthetic derivatives of carnosine (2010) Cell Mol Neurobiol, 30, pp. 395-404. , 19798566 10.1007/s10571-009-9462-7 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXksVekt7w%3D
Supuran, C.T., Briganti, F., Tilli, S., Chegwidden W.Richard, Scozzafava, A., Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Sulfonamides as antitumor agents? (2001) Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 9 (3), pp. 703-714. , DOI 10.1016/S0968-0896(00)00288-1, PII S0968089600002881
Teufel, M., Saudek, V., Ledig, J.-P., Bernhardt, A., Boularand, S., Carreau, A., Cairns, N.J., Smirnova, T., Sequence identification and characterization of human carnosinase and a closely related non-specific dipeptidase (2003) Journal of Biological Chemistry, 278 (8), pp. 6521-6531. , DOI 10.1074/jbc.M209764200
Trombley, P.Q., Horning, M.S., Blakemore, L.J., Interactions between carnosine and zinc and copper: Implications for neuromodulation and neuroprotection (2000) Biochemistry (Mosc), 65, pp. 807-816. , 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlvFOlsbk%3D
Unno, H., Yamashita, T., Ujita, S., Okumura, N., Otani, H., Okumura, A., Nagai, K., Kusunoki, M., Structural basis for substrate recognition and hydrolysis by mouse carnosinase CN2 (2008) J Biol Chem, 3 (283), pp. 27289-27299. , 10.1074/jbc.M801657200
Vistoli, G., Orioli, M., Pedretti, A., Regazzoni, L., Canevotti, R., Negrisoli, G., Carini, M., Aldini, G., Design, synthesis, and evaluation of carnosine derivatives as selective and efficient sequestering agents of cytotoxic reactive carbonyl species (2009) ChemMedChem, 4, pp. 967-975. , 19301317 10.1002/cmdc.200800433 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXmslChtb8%3D
Carnosine derivatives: new multifunctional drug-like molecules
Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) is an endogenous dipeptide widely and abundantly distributed in the muscle and nervous tissues of several animal species. Many functions have been proposed for this compound because of its antioxidant and metal ion-chelator properties. Many potential therapeutic properties have been recognized especially related to the antioxidant activity, but the therapeutic uses are strongly limited by the mechanism governing its homeostasis. This fact has been the main reason for developing the synthesis of carnosine derivatives with interesting potentiality, but until now there have been very few applications. These derivatives could represent the future drugs for many pathologies related to oxidative stress and metal ion dyshomeostasis.
Carnosine derivatives: new multifunctional drug-like molecules